Broken down, it is a total of 13,392 persons trafficked a year; 36 trafficked every day; an average of one person trafficked an hour. Speak with an attorney from New Mexico Criminal Law Offices today. Agents of the Dominican National Directorate for Drug Control (DNCD) prepare to burn seized drugs in Pedro Brand, Dominican Republic on December 20, 2012. Coca cultivation in Peru increased 6.8% in 2009—from 56,100 hectares in 2008 to 59,900. Drug Reduction Goals were Not Fully Met, but Security Has Improved. In the end, Proposition 19 was defeated at the polls by a 52% against versus almost 48% in favor among California voters. US government estimates of total cocaine production were higher, ranging up to 1000 mt. As he told the Times: The habit has this Nation in its grip to an astonishing extent. During 2002-2003 Uribe increased the number of combat troops and pursued constitutional reforms to expand the military activities (Ramírez Lemus, Stanton and John Walsh, 2005: 111-112). In 2000, the Tijuana cartel (Arrellano Félix family) and the Juárez cartel (Carrillo Fuentes family) were the two largest and most dominant drug trafficking organizations in Mexico. Astorga Almanza, Luis (2007), Seguridad, Traficantes, y Militares. McPheeters said during the presentation that Casper has been seeing increased drug trafficking activity. This work highlights the transition from the Felipe Calderón administration to the Enrique Peña Nieto government, focusing on differences and continuities in counternarcotics policies as well as other trends such as violence and drug ... The prison sentence can range from as little as three to five years all the way to life in prison. Implications for US Policy Options, Santa Monica, CA, Rand Corporation. Articles discuss issues related to the national security policies, from historical, economic, political, and technological viewpoints, covering treaties, developments in weaponry and warfare, and key figures in the field. He made his job a personal crusade to protect good Americans against a foreign menace and was the first person to envision the United States as leader in a global campaign to stop drug use. But debate over drug laws has been clouded by emotive, unscientific forces, including racism. Coca cultivation is, in short, returning to countries where eradication policies damaged the reputation of the US and US drug control policies and incentivized peasant unrest (Gootenberg, 2008: 315). Colombia’s emergent Bandas Criminales (Bacrim), the descendants of the now formally demobilized paramilitary groups that made up the Colombian Sell-Defense Forces (Auto Defensas Unidas de Colombia — AUC) represent a new generation of drug traffickers in Colombia. Given similar caveats, coca cultivation in both Peru and Bolivia, after almost two decades of decline, appears once again to have expanded.13 Most observers believe that overall coca leaf production and cocaine availability in the Andean region remain roughly on par with 2000 levels and well above those of 1990 or 1995. . Only after 2000, however, did Mexico experience the rise and participation of newer cartels such as Sinaloa, the Gulf, and the Zetas (Bagley and Hernández, 2010: 332-333). Drug policy analyst Dr. Peter Reuter estimates Mexican cartel drug profits at the much lower figure of $7 billion per year for 2010. However, the League of Nations and such producers as Peru, the Netherlands, and Japan resisted the effort. Grayson, George W. (2009), “Mexico’s struggle with ‘drugs and thugs’”, Headline Series, No. While the United States has managed to stabilize or even reduce demand for most illicit drugs at home, it most certainly has not eliminated American demand for illicit drugs or the profits associated with supplying the huge US market. Together, these two regions accounted for more than 80% of the global cocaine market, estimated at US$ 88 billion in 2008 (UNODC, 2010b: 82). A new preface discusses developments of the last six years, including the Mercury News stories and the public reaction they provoked. The high costs associated with failure have generated a reaction to the US strategy both at home and abroad and produced a new debate over alternatives to American prohibitionist approaches such as harm reduction, decriminalization, and legalization (Bagley and Tokatlian, 2007; Bagley, 2009b; 1988). Demand control has routinely been underfunded by Washington while primary emphasis has almost automatically been accorded to expensive, but ultimately ineffective, supply-side control strategies. The Tijuana and Juarez cartels started to fight for control of cocaine smuggling routes across Mexico and cross-border plazas into the United States in the vacuum left by the collapse of the major Colombian cartels. Our attorneys know how to defend against drug crimes, and we have helped countless defendants just like you with their case. An unruly state, poppies in the mountains, and an illegal opium market 360 miles to the north. 8-61. As the Uribe administration and the US-backed Plan Colombia succeeded at least partially in Colombia in the war against cocaine traffickers, the major drug trafficking networks in Mexico took advantage of the vacuum left in the drug trade to take over control of cocaine smuggling operations from Colombia into the United States. 14In the 1980s, largely as a result of the formation of the US government’s South Florida Task Force in 1982 — headed by then-Vice President George H. W. Bush — the established Caribbean routes used by the Medellín and Cali cartels in the 1970s and early 1980s were essentially closed down by American law enforcement and military operations. Found inside – Page iBased on face-to-face interviews with hundreds of incarcerated drug traffickers, street-level drug dealers, users, and authorities, paired with extensive fieldwork in the border areas of Burma and China and several major urban centers in ... Nuevo Paradigma de Cooperación entre México y Estados Unidos en Seguridad?, Mexico, DF, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. The Sinaloa Federation, still in operation today, is the most notorious cartel still operating in Mexico. The report estimates that Brazil has 900,000 cocaine users, which makes it the number one consumer in South America. By this time, there were an estimated 200,000 Americans addicted to the substance. Intense eradication actions without economic alternatives made people join the guerrillas (Valderrama and Cabieses, 2004: 60-61). 33While the United States has managed to stabilize or even reduce demand for most illicit drugs at home, it most certainly has not eliminated American demand for illicit drugs or the profits associated with supplying the huge US market. Hitz stated that the CIA wittingly did business with at least six drug trafficking organizations, and dozens of suspected traffickers, in the 1980s–and rarely breathed a word of what it knew to the DEA. With the exception of Latin America, the heroin produced from Afghanistan is trafficked to every major region around the world. This essay identifies eight key trends or patterns that typify the ongoing transformation of the drug trade and the organized criminal groups it has spawned as of mid-2011. Origins of Narcotic Control, New York, Oxford University Press (third edition, first published in 1973 by Yale University Press). Which have been the principal transformations or adaptations — economic, political and organizational — that have taken place within the region’s vast illegal drug economy during first decade of the twenty first century? The differential insertion of individual countries into the political economy of drug trafficking in the hemisphere has produced a variety of forms or types of intermediation between peasant growers of illicit crops and consumers. URL: http://journals.openedition.org/spp/1010, Professor of International Studies and Chair of the Department of International Studies at the University of Miami. 219-234. For more information, see UNODC (2011: 101). Magazines, Digital Illegal drug trade The War on DrugsThe United Nations' Drugs and Crime Tsar Antonio Maria Costa claimed that illegal drug money saved the banking industry from collapse. Identifica ocho tendencias principales que caracterizaron el tráfico ilícito de drogas y el crimen organizado desde mediados de 2011. 1What are the major trends that have characterized the evolution of illicit drug trafficking and organized crime (organized criminal networks) in the Americas over the last quarter of a century? They introduced Californians to smoking opium, and the trade and distribution of the drug became a regular practice. Global Commission on Drug Policy (2011), War on Drugs: Report of the Global Commission on Drug Policy, June, available at: http://www.globalcommissionondrugs.org/Report. The Uribe Government emphasized a counterinsurgency strategy in Plan Colombia, an important difference from the Pastrana government’s original “Plan Marshall”. 35Some Latin American analysts anticipated that the possible passage of California’s Proposition 19 in November 2010, which sought to legalize the cultivation, distribution and possession of marijuana in the state, would signal the beginning of the end of the US-led war on drugs and allow Mexico and other countries in the region to move away from the “prohibitionist” strategy that has generated so much drug-related violence throughout Latin America and the Caribbean in recent years. In the wake of Medellin and Cali, Colombia witnessed a rapid fragmentation and dispersion of criminal networks that have proven far more difficult for law enforcement authorities to track down and dismantle than their larger and more notorious predecessors (Garzón, 2008; Garay-Salamanca, Salcedo-Albarán and León-Beltrán, 2010). The 2010 World Drug Report indicates that Colombia successfully reduced the total number of hectares under coca cultivation within its national territory in the second half of the 2000s, although production has still not returned to pre-2000 levels. Thoumi, Francisco E. (2004), “Illegal drugs in Colombia: from illegal economic boom to social crisis”, in Menno Vellinga (ed. Many Confederate and Union soldiers were addicted to these drugs. Trafficking is typically a federal offense. Drug trafficking will never stop, but lawmakers have made the penalties for doing so a deterrent for some in the future. 25Under pressure from Mexican and US law enforcement, Mexican trafficker organizations have, since the mid-2000s if not before, sought to move at least part of their smuggling operations from Mexico into neighboring countries. Latin America and the International System, Gainesville, FL, University Press of Florida, pp. In fact, it was so popular that opium dens were created for designing, selling, and distributing the drug. By this time, the number of addicts in the country jumped to 750,000. Washington has demanded that the countries of the region follow its lead in the war on drugs and, as in previous years, upheld a formal “certification” process that often sanctioned those nations that did not “fully cooperate”. 23The maras (youth gangs) in Central American countries such as Honduras and Guatemala, the Barrio Azteca prison gang in El Paso, Texas, and Juárez, Mexico, and the Comando Vermelho in Rio de Janeiro provide additional examples of the proliferation of gangs or pandillas that work and fight — often in close association with major cartels — that have appeared along with the phenomenon of fragmentation and dispersion. In Medellín, literally scores of relatively small, competing drug gangs have generated a pattern of “disorganized” crime: rather than rationally doing what would be “good for business — keeping murder rates low and police attention to a minimum — the criminal world is in turmoil and in need of an arbitrator to re-establish authority” (Pachico, 2011b: s.p.). Chinese immigrants and their descendants had the vision and connections to kick-start Mexico’s first drug trafficking. 36Whether one did or does favor marijuana legalization in California and beyond, there are many reasons to be skeptical of the real impact of marijuana legalization on drug trafficking and organized crime in California or anywhere else. org, October 23, available at: http://www.insightcrime.org/colombia-local-elections-2011/the-new-political-face-of-colombias-drug-gangs, Pachico, Elyssa (2011b), “Medellín’s turbulent Comuna 13", Insightcrime.org, May 13, available at: http://www.insightcrime.org/investigations/medellins-turbulent-comuna-13. Ciudad Juarez and the Global Economy’s Killing Fields, New York, Nation Books. Pardo, Rafael (2010), “Introducción: hacia un nuevo pensamiento sobre drogas. This article analyses the evolution of illegal drug economy in the Americas over the past two decades. Moreover, the Colombian groups now. What are the major trends that have characterized the evolution of illicit drug trafficking and organized crime (organized criminal networks) in the Americas over the last quarter of a century? 17The differential insertion of individual countries into the political economy of drug trafficking in the hemisphere has produced a variety of forms or types of intermediation between peasant growers of illicit crops and consumers. Cocaine users in the 27 European Union countries have, however, more than doubled in the past decade, increasing from 2 million in 1998 to 4.1 million in 2008 (4.5 million in all of Europe). Latin American Commission on Drugs and Democracy (2008), Drugs and Democracy. And the war is creeping northward, towards the United States. El Narco is the story of the ultraviolent criminal organizations that have turned huge areas of Mexico into a combat zone. Estimates of cocaine production per hectare of cultivated coca are quite unreliable. Currently, the area under cultivation in Colombia is estimated at 62,000 ha. 22Like Mexico, where the splintering of authority has led to the creation of smaller but no less violent groups such as the Cartel de Acapulco and Mano con Ojos, Colombia’s drug gangs are fighting to establish their place in the new criminal hierarchy in Medellin’s poor and marginalized barrios long ignored by both the central Colombian state in Bogotá and by Medellín’s municipal government. The basic challenge of drug policy is tough: the majority favor certain recreational drugs, such as alcohol, which causes death and addiction. These organizations work across the Western Hemisphere and globally. They are involved in extensive money laundering, bribery, gun trafficking, and corruption, and they cause Mexico''s homicide rates to spike. Chinese immigrants and their descendants had the vision and connections to kick-start Mexico’s first drug trafficking. Criminal gangs in Mexico and elsewhere in the hemisphere will most likely move away from marijuana to deeper involvement in the still-illegal drugs, organized crime and drug-related violence will continue. 6 South America was the third largest consumer market for cocaine in the world in 2008 with some 2.4 million users. This reflects the widespread proliferation in the manufacture, trafficking, and use of the drug across the West and Midwest and portions of the South. Not only does it affect the economy, but creates a deadly spiral of consequences for healthcare, insurance, law enforcement, and even families. Since 2000, after the Vicente Fox administration first went after Tijuana and then Juárez, Mexico has seen the rise of at least five new major trafficking organizations and a host of smaller, lesser known groups: Sinaloa, Gulf, Familia Michocana, Beltrán-Leyva, and Zetas.23 This dispersion of criminal networks in Mexico may well represent the beginning of the kind of fragmentation observed in Colombia in the 1990s. Over the last decade or more, the bulk of the heroin consumed in Europe has come from Afghanistan, whereas most of the heroin consumed in the United States comes from either Colombia (roughly 2% of word supply) or Mexico (roughly 1.5% of world supply, UNODC, World Drug Report, 2011: 71-73). Restrepo, Elvira María, and Bruce Bagley (eds.) They are: (1) the increasing globalization of drug consumption; (2) the limited victories and unintended consequences of the U.S.-led ‘War on Drugs’; (3) the proliferation of cultivation areas and of drug smuggling routes; (4) the dispersion and fragmentation of organized criminal groups; (5) the failure of political reform and state-building efforts; (6) the inadequacies U.S. domestic drug and crime control policies; (7) the ineffectiveness of regional and international drug control policies; (8) the growing support for legalization debate. By the late 1980s, cocaine was no longer thought of as the drug of choice for the wealthy. In between cities are vast stretches of wild land running through deserts and arid hills. Drug trafficking is nothing new to the United States. The UN’s approach to drug control (like that of the OAS) severely limits the flexibility of responses at the level of member-states because it effectively rules out any possible experimentation with legalization and/or decriminalization. ), Drogas y Prohibición. These statistics are from the UNODC, World Drug Report (2011: 119). Transitions from authoritarian to democratic political systems may also engender such institutional deficits even in the absence of prior prolonged internal conflict. Evidently, the balloon effect that allowed coca cultivation to shift north from Bolivia and Peru to Colombia in the 1990s continues to operate as cultivation moved back into Peru and Bolivia from Colombia at the end of the first decade of the 2000s. Most were bilingual in Spanish and Mandarin and had Mexican Christian names. It is likely that the Sinaloa model will prove more sustainable — better for business — than other criminal trafficker organizational models in Mexico, but the jury is still out (Flores Pérez, 2009: 137-228; Chabat, 2010; Williams, 2010). Cocaine use in Argentina is reported to be 2.6% and 2.4% in Chile (UNODC, 2011: 91). 1 The ex-presidents from Brazil, Colombia and Mexico, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, César Gaviria, and Ernesto Zedillo respectively, highlight the necessity that the United States and Europe should “design and implement policies leading to an effective reduction in their levels of drug consumption and, as a consequence, in the overall scope of the narcotics criminal activities (Latin American Commission on Drugs and Democracy, 2008: 7). 2UNODC (2011: 87). It was launched in January 2012, and it combines the military forces of 10 Latin American countries, the U.S., Canada, the U.K., France and the Netherlands. 1 While that may never change, the War on Drugs continues to rage … Second, legalization of marijuana, if and when it ever occurs, will not address the issues — production, processing, trafficking and distribution — raised by criminal activity, violence and corruption spawned by traffic in harder drugs such as cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamines among other. Under former mayor (now governor of Antioquia) Sergio Fajardo, Medellin did see a significant decline in violence rates for several years — especially homicide statistics — via informal negotiations with the gangs, new mayoral initiatives to reduce gang violence (e.g., increased social services, expanded educational opportunities, jobs programs, new public recreational spaces for youth) and the demobilization of the nation’s paramilitary groups in 2005 and beyond. Some 3.2 tonnes of drugs - mainly cocaine, heroin and marijuana - were set ablaze, from 10 tons that were seized. This organisation, highlighted the effects of human trafficking. Chaparro, Camilo (2005), Historia del Cartel de Cali. Growing up with drug prohibition, it is easy to think of it as an age-old ban, such as the outlawing of robbery or murder. The Medellin Cartel was extremely violent, killing 40 people during a weekend known as the Medellin Massacre in response to Colombian police seizing over 600 kilos of cocaine off a plane. The trade eventually created a new social class and influenced several aspects of Colombian culture and politics. Indeed, evidence that some Mexican drug trafficking operations (Sinaloa, Zetas) are moving from Mexico into Central America is already abundant.12. Drug use was high among soldiers, and 15 percent of active soldiers by 1971 were reported addicts. It is a felony, which makes it more severe than possession charges. UNODC — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2006), Coca Cultivation in the Andean Region. In China, state capitalism coexists with the Chinese triads and other criminal organizations. There certainly are significant institutional reforms proposed or underway in México at the end of the Felipe Calderon sexenio (2006-12), but there is little question that such reforms have not come fast enough nor have they been deep enough to date to contain drug trafficking criminal organizations and related violence and corruption in México. Supported by almost $8 billion in US aid under Plan Colombia over the course of a decade, by 2010 Colombian President Uribe and his program of “democratic security” had managed to beat back the FARC guerrillas, demobilize many — if not all — of the country’s paramilitary bands, and substantially reduce the country’s astronomically high levels of drug-related violence.9, 8Despite the substantial achievements of Plan Colombia and the Uribe administration’s “democratic security” policies, however, as of 2010 Colombia remained a principal source of coca leaf and refined cocaine in the Andes and drug-related violence and criminality appeared to be once again on the rise. 18 On Calderon’s military strategy and the Mérida Initiative, see Rafael Velázquez Flores and Juan Pablo Prado Lallande (2009), Raul Benitez Manaut (2010), David A. Shirk (2011). 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